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word  may  be  traced  (e.g.  paper  ‹  Fr  papier  ‹  Lat  papyrus  ‹  Gr
                            papyrus has French as its source of borrowing and Greek as its
                            origin).
                                  Sometimes  the  word  borrowing  is  used  in  a  wider  sense,
                            being  extended  onto  the  so-called  translation-loans  (or  calques)
                            and  semantic  borrowings.  Translation-loans  are  words  and
                            expressions made from the material available in the language after
                            the  patterns  characteristic  of  the  given  language,  but  under  the
                            influence  of  some  foreign  words  and  expressions  (e.g.  mother
                            tongue ‹ lingua maternal (Latin); wall newspaper ‹ стенгазета
                            (Russian); the fair sex ‹ la beau sexe (French), etc.)
                                  Semantic borrowing is the appearance of a new meaning due
                            to  the  influence  of  a  related  word  in  another  language  (e.g.  the
                            word  bureau  entered  the  political  vocabulary,  as  in  Political
                            bureau,  under  the  influence  of  Russian)  A  special  distinction
                            should be made between true borrowings and words formed from
                            Latin  and  Greek  (e.g.  telephone,  phonogram,  which  were  never
                            part of Latin or Greek and they do not reflect any contacts with
                            speakers of those languages.
                                  Criteria of borrowings
                                  The  criteria  of  borrowings  can  be  divided  into  phonetical,
                            grammatical and lexical.
                                  The  phonetical  criteria  are  strange  sounds  (sound
                            combination,  position  of  stress),  its  spelling  and  the  correlation
                            between  sounds  and  letters  (e.g.  waltz  (G.),  psychology  (GR),
                            communiqué  (Fr)),  the  initial  position  of  sounds  [v],  [z]  or  the
                            letters x, j, z is a valid sign that the word is borrowed (e.g. volcano
                            (It.), vaccine (L.), Jungle (Hindi), zinc (G.), etc.)
                                  The  morphological  structure  of  the  word  and  its
                            grammatical  forms  also  indicate  that  the  word  is  adopted  from
                            another  language  (e.g.  the  suffixes  in  the  words  neurosis  (Gr.),
                            violoncello  (It.);  the  irregular  plural  forms  bacteria  (bacterium,
                            L.), papyra (papyrus, Gr.), etc.















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