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Source: Based on Porter, L. W., & Lawler, E. E. (1968). Managerial attitudes
and performance. Homewood, IL: Irwin; Vroom, V. H. (1964). Work and motivation.
New York: Wiley.
The first question is whether the person believes that high levels of effort will
lead to desired outcomes. This perception is labeled as expectancy. For example, do
you believe that the effort you put forth in a class is related to learning worthwhile
material and receiving a good grade? If you do, you are more likely to put forth
effort.
The second question is the degree to which the person believes that

performance is related to secondary outcomes such as rewards. This perception is
labeled asinstrumentality. For example, do you believe that passing the class is
related to rewards such as getting a better job, or gaining approval from your
instructor, from your friends, or parents? If you do, you are more likely to put forth
effort.
Finally, individuals are also concerned about the value of the rewards awaiting
them as a result of performance. The anticipated satisfaction that will result from an
outcome is labeled as valence. For example, do you value getting a better job or
gaining approval from your instructor, friends, or parents? If these outcomes are
desirable to you, you are more likely to put forth effort.
As a manager, how can you influence these perceptions to motivate
employees? In fact, managers can influence all three perceptions. [19] To influence
their expectancy perceptions, managers may train their employees, or hire people
who are qualified for the jobs in question. Low expectancy may also be due to
employees feeling that something other than effort predicts performance, such as
political behaviors on the part of employees. In this case, clearing the way to
performance and creating an environment in which employees do not feel blocked
will be helpful. The first step in influencing instrumentality is to connect pay and
other rewards to performance using bonuses, award systems, and merit pay.
Publicizing any contests or award programs is helpful in bringing rewards to the
awareness of employees. It is also important to highlight that performance and not
something else is being rewarded. For example, if a company has an employee-of-
the-month award that is rotated among employees, employees are unlikely to believe
that performance is being rewarded. In the name of being egalitarian, such a reward
system may actually hamper the motivation of highest performing employees by
eroding instrumentality. Finally, to influence valence, managers will need to find out
what their employees value. This can be done by talking to employees, or surveying
them about what rewards they find valuable.

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