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maximum efficiency. Another one of the major advances of scientific management
was job specialization, which entails breaking down tasks to their simplest
components and assigning them to employees so that each person would perform few
tasks in a repetitive manner. While this technique may be very efficient in terms of

automation and standardization, from a motivational perspective, these jobs will be
boring and repetitive and therefore associated with negative outcomes such as
absenteeism. [26] Job specialization is also an ineffective way of organizing jobs in
rapidly changing environments where employees close to the problem should modify
their approach based on the demands of the situation. [27]
Rotation, Job Enlargement, and Enrichment
One of the early alternatives to job specialization was job rotation, which
involves moving employees from job to job at regular intervals, thereby relieving the
monotony and boredom typical in repetitive jobs. For example, Maids International, a
company that provides cleaning services to households and businesses, uses job
rotation such that maids cleaning the kitchen in one house would clean the bedroom
in another house. [28] Using this technique, among others, the company was able to
reduce its turnover level. In a study conducted in a supermarket, cashiers were rotated
to work in different departments. As a result of the rotation, employee stress level
was reduced as measured by their blood pressure. Moreover, they reported fewer pain
symptoms in their neck and shoulders. [29]
Job rotation has a number of advantages for organizations. It is an effective
way for employees to acquire new skills, as the rotation involves cross-training to
new tasks; this means that organizations increase the overall skill level of their
employees. [30] In addition, job rotation is a means of knowledge transfer between
departments. [31] For the employees, rotation is a benefit because they acquire new
skills, which keeps them marketable in the long run.
Anecdotal evidence suggests that companies successfully rotate high-level
employees to train their managers and increase innovativeness in the company. For
example, Nokia uses rotation at all levels, such as assigning lawyers to act as country
managers or moving network engineers to handset design. These approaches are
thought to bring a fresh perspective to old problems. [32] India’s information
technology giant Wipro, which employs about 80,000 employees, uses a three-year
plan to groom future leaders of the company by rotating them through different
jobs. [33]
Job enlargement refers to expanding the tasks performed by employees to add
more variety. Like job rotation, job enlargement can reduce boredom and monotony
as well as use human resources more effectively. When jobs are enlarged, employees
view themselves as being capable of performing a broader set of tasks. [34] Job
enlargement is positively related to employee satisfaction and higher-quality
customer services, and it increases the chances of catching mistakes. [35] At the same
time, the effects of job enlargement may depend on the type of enlargement. For
example, exclusively giving employees simpler tasks had negative consequences on
employee satisfaction with the job of catching errors, whereas giving employees
more tasks that require them to be knowledgeable in different areas seemed to have
more positive effects. [36]

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