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decision-making process was unfair since it wasn’t based on performance. This
response would involve feelings of procedural injustice. Procedural justice refers to
the degree to which fair decision-making procedures are used. Research shows that
employees care about procedural justice for many organizational decisions, including

layoffs, employee selection, surveillance of employees, performance appraisals, and
[8]
pay decisions. They tend to care about procedural justice particularly when they do
[9]
not get the outcome they feel they deserve. If Marie does not get the promotion and
finds out that management chose the candidate by picking a name out of a hat, she
may view this as adding insult to injury. When people do not get the rewards they
want, they tend to hold management responsible if procedures are not fair. [10]
Research has identified many ways of achieving procedural justice. For
example, giving employees advance notice before laying them off, firing them, or
disciplining them is perceived as fairer. [11] Allowing employees voice into decision
making is also important. [12] When designing a performance appraisal system or
implementing a reorganization, asking employees for their input may be a good idea
because it increases perceptions of fairness. Even when it is not possible to have
employees participate, providing explanations is helpful in fostering procedural
justice. [13] Finally, people expect consistency in treatment. [14] If one person is given
extra time when taking a test while another is not, individuals would perceive
decision making as unfair.
Now let’s imagine Marie’s boss telling her she is getting the promotion. The
manager’s exact words: “Yes, Marie, we are giving you the promotion. The job is so
simple that we thought even you can handle it.” Now what is Marie’s reaction? The
unpleasant feelings she may now experience are explained by interactional
justice. Interactional justice refers to the degree to which people are treated with
respect, kindness, and dignity in interpersonal interactions. We expect to be treated
with dignity by our peers, supervisors, and customers. When the opposite happens,
we feel angry. Even when faced with negative outcomes such as a pay cut, being
treated with dignity and respect serves as a buffer and alleviates our stress. [15]
Employers would benefit from paying attention to all three types of justice
perceptions. In addition to being the right thing to do, justice perceptions lead to
outcomes companies care about. Injustice is directly harmful to employee
psychological health and well-being and contributes to stress. [16] High levels of
justice create higher levels of employee commitment to organizations, are related to
higher job performance, higher levels of organizational citizenship (behaviors that are
not part of one’s job description but help the organization in other ways such as
speaking positively about the company and helping others), and higher levels of
customer satisfaction, whereas low levels of justice lead to retaliation and supporting
union certification movements. [17]
Expectancy Theory
According to expectancy theory, individual motivation to put forth more or less
effort is determined by a rational calculation. [18] According to this theory, individuals
ask themselves three questions.
Figure 14.10 Summary of Expectancy Theory

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