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Grammar Section
Punctuation. Comma
Comma is used:
1. To separate independent clauses when they are joined by any of these seven coordinating
conjunctions: and, but, for, or, nor, so, yet.
 The game was over, but the crowd refused to leave.
 The student explained her question, yet the instructor still didn't seem to understand.

2. After introductory a) clauses, b) phrases, or c) words that come before the main clause.
a. Common starter words for introductory clauses that should be followed by a comma includeafter,
although, as, because, if, since, when, while.
 While I was eating, the cat scratched at the door.

However, don't put a comma after the main clause when a dependent (subordinate) clause follows it
(except for cases of extreme contrast).
 INCORRECT: The cat scratched at the door, while I was eating.
 CORRECT: She was still quite upset, although she had won the Oscar. (This comma use is
correct because it is an example of extreme contrast.)

b. Common introductory phrases that should be followed by a comma include participial and
infinitive phrases, absolute phrases, nonessential appositive phrases, and long prepositional phrases
(over four words).
 Having finished the test, he left the room.

Common introductory words that should be followed by a comma include yes, however, well.
 Well, perhaps he meant no harm.
 Yes, the package should arrive tomorrow morning.

3. In the middle of a sentence to set off clauses, phrases, and words that are not essential to the
meaning of the sentence. Use one comma before to indicate the beginning of the pause and one at
the end to indicate the end of the pause.
 Clause: That Tuesday, which happens to be my birthday, is the only day when I am
available to meet.
 Phrase: This restaurant has an exciting atmosphere. The food, on the other hand, is rather
bland.
4. To separate three or more words, phrases, or clauses written in a series.
 The Constitution establishes the legislative, executive, and judicial branches of government.
 The candidate promised to lower taxes, protect the environment, reduce crime, and end
unemployment.

5. To separate two or more coordinate adjectives that describe the same noun. Be sure never to add
an extra comma between the final adjective and the noun itself or to use commas with non-
coordinate adjectives.
 He was a difficult, stubborn child. (coordinate)
 They lived in a white frame house. (non-coordinate)

6. Near the end of a sentence to separate contrasted coordinate elements or to indicate a distinct
pause or shift.
 He was merely ignorant, not stupid.

7. To set off phrases at the end of the sentence that refer to the beginning or middle of the sentence.
Such phrases are free modifiers that can be placed anywhere in the sentence without causing

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