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Classification of Illocutionary Acts

Speech Act Functions and Subfunctions

Austin and other philosophers tried to understand how an infinite number of
sentences might reflect a very finite set of functions. They concluded that since the number
of things we do with words is limited, we ought to be able to assign functions to utterances.
The problem with assigning functions to sentences is that speaker intent and sentence
meaning are not always the same, and no utterance is completely context free in terms of
meaning or function. Nevertheless, linguists and philosophers (J. Searle, R. Ohmann,
K. Bach and H. Harnish, J. McCawley, J. Vendler) have given much attention to differences
among illocutionary speech acts and proposed various typologies to classify them.
Though Austin was the first to delineate illocutionary acts distinguishing five general
classes – verdicatives, exercitives, commissives, behabitives, expositives – the most
prominent taxonomy belongs to J.R. Searle. In his article entitled “Classification of
Illocutionary acts” Austin’s former student John Searle also pointed out that there is an
endless number of illocutionary acts. There are statements, assertions, denials, requests,
commands, warnings, promises, vows, offers, apologies, thanks, condolences,
appointments, namings, resignations, etc. At the same time, he observed that some
illocutionary acts are more closely related than others. His classification is the following :

General functions of speech acts (Searle 1979)

Speech act type Direction of fit S = speaker; X = situation
Declarations words change the world S causes X
Representatives words fit the world S believes X
Expressives words fit the world S feels X
Directives make the world fit words S wants X
Commissives make the world fit words S intends X

1. Representatives are utterances used to describe some state of affairs. They commit the
speaker (in varying degree) to smth’s being the case, to the truth of the expressed
proposition. This class includes statements of facts, assertions, conclusions,
descriptions, predictions, denials, admissions, notifications, etc. In using a
representative, the speaker makes words fit the world (of belief).
Eg.: a. It’s an interesting book.
b. I don’t know Mary Smith.
c. It was a nice trip.
2. Directives are utterances used to try to get the hearer to do smth. They express what
the speaker wants. The speaker attempts to make the world fit the words. They include
two subcategories:
a) attempts (of varying degrees) by the speaker to get the hearer to do smth. They are
acts of commands, ordering, requesting, suggesting, insisting, recommending,
warning, advising, etc.
b) questions are used to get the hearer to provide information. This class includes acts
of asking, inquiring, etc.
Eg.: a. Close the door.