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• organizational: barriers, filtering by levels;
• mass communication: kind of medium, finances;.
 Physical – setting or physical context which can influence the content and quality of
interaction;
 Chronological – refers to the ways time influences interaction;
 Social – refers to the nature of the relationship between communicators; their social
statuses, ethics;
 Cultural – includes national backgrounds.

CULTURE AS A CONSTRAINT
 Definition:
The ever-changing values, traditions, social and political relationships, and worldview
created and shared by a group of people bound together by a combination of factors (which
can include a common history, geographic location, language, social class, and/or religion).
Culture is best seen not as complexes of concrete behavior patterns – customs, usages,
traditions, habit clusters—as has, by and large, been the case up to now, but as a set of control
mechanisms—plans, recipes, rules, instructions (what computer engineers call “programs”) —
for the governing of behavior. (Geertz)

INTRACULTURAL, INTERCULTURAL, CROSS-CULTURAL COMMUNICATION
 Intracultural communication is the exchange of meaningful messages between at least
members who are from the same cultural group or have culturally similar backgrounds.
 Intercultural communication occurs when a message created by a member of one culture
needs to be processed by a member of another culture. It deals with
the interaction between at least two people whose different cultural backgrounds affect their
communication strategies towards [tə w dz] each other.
 Cross-cultural communication describes the comparison of communication styles across
cultures. For instance, a paper about what happens when a Frenchman speaks to an
Indian woman would be intercultural, but a paper comparing the communication patterns of
people from France with the communication patterns of people from India would be cross-
cultural.

LEGAL CONSTRAINTS ON COMMUNICATION
(Pete E. Krane)
1) Constraints that prevent the communication from taking place:
• Because of personal inhibitions, something is not said;
• The government issues the order that certain information may not be publicly disclosed;
• The politician concludes that an effective appeal should avoid certain arguments.
1) Constraints that involve punishment for what was said / written:
• The voters reject the candidate whose appeals are not effective;
• If court communication in improper, the suspect may pay a fine or be imprisoned.

CONSTRAINTS ON COMMUNICATION PREDETERMINED BY LEGISLATION
A.
1) Efforts to prevent communication (freedom of speech);
2) Actions to punish unacceptable communication:
 sedition [s d n] (крамола);