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1. increased structuring (it is reflected in rules of etiquette that influence participants' attire and
demeanor as well as their speech. Markers of formality may include features of
pronunciation, intonation, facial expression, grammar, and vocabulary, with tendencies to
use more prestigeful or correct speech and to appear serious. Rights of participants to
speak may be curtailed or directed into certain kinds of exchanges and turn-takings);
2. consistency of co-occurrence choices (participants tend to make stylistic choices that are
highly consistent with the overall theme of "seriousness" appropriate to the occasion);
3. emphasis on positional identities of participants (this aspect of formality refers to the social
identities of participants. All people have multiple roles or identities: parent, friend, teacher,
president of an organization. Formal situations define people by their "positional and public"
rather than "personal" identities (ibid.: 778). By invoking public roles, social distance rather
than intimacy is stressed. An emphasis on positional identities is often reflected
linguistically in forms of address);
4. emergence of a central situational focus (formal situations tend to focus on specific issues
and happenings. This aspect of events typically is reflected in constraints on topic choice
and in restrictions on speakers' rights to change or introduce elements).
Norms of communicative behavior in informal settings are much more diffuse and flexible,
although participants always assess speech and nonverbal actions according to cultural
models of appropriateness. Structuring of informal situations is relatively loose. Conversational
patterns are usually adaptable and spontaneous. Topics also shift within encounters and are
dependent upon interlocutors' interests.

PARTICIPANTS

Participants, topics, and goals are constrained by settings and overall contexts, but not in
a linear manner. Rather, people choose ways of speaking after evaluating an entire
communicative and social situation.
Participants in speech events include speakers, addressees, and audience. Individuals
usually change roles during a given event. In two-party conversations, each person is
alternatively speaker or addressee as they exchange speaking turns. Only in the most formal
occasions, such as religious ceremonies, public speeches, or lectures, does one person
monopolize all (or nearly all) of the rights to speak. Even in these events, audiences have a
communicative role to play by making appropriate responses to the speech of the officiators.
People make choices about language use based on characteristics of other participants
in a speech event. Such choices include many aspects of linguistic and non-verbal behaviour.
1. Pronunciation: distinctiveness of articulation
2. Prosodic features of intonation: velocity (speed of speaking), volume (loudness/softness)
3. Syntax: complexity or simplicity of word order, phrase construction
4. Choice of words
5. Non-verbal cues: facial expression, eye contact, touch, physical distancing
Speakers determine, usually unconsciously, which communicative features are most
appropriate given the person(s) to whom they are speaking.
In addition to linguistic features, choice of topic also depends on the speaker’s
awareness of cultural and individual expectations. Certain topics will be selected for discussion
with some people but not when conversing with others.
Norms of conversation interaction are patterned in recognition of other participants in
speech events. Such dynamics as turn-taking, topic development, and signals of listenship are