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1. He was still nearly tree-quarters of a mile from home, and the lane was becoming
unpleasantly slippery, for the mist was passing into rain.
2. Be quick, or it may be too late.
3. … real accuracy and purity she neither possessed, nor in any number of years would
acquire.
4. The river was not high, so there was not more than a two or three mile current.
5. It seemed to him that he could contrive to secure form her the full benefit of both
his life insurance and his fire insurance.
6. But for a long time we didn’t see any lights, nor did we see the shore, but rowed
steadily in the dark riding with the waves.
7. The stranger had not gone far, so he made after him to ask the name.

Lesson 8
HISTORY OF DEVELOPMENT

1. Read and translate Text 8:

One of the first applications of spatial analysis in epidemiology is the 1832 “Rapport
sur la marche et les effets du choléra dans Paris et le département de la Seine”. The French
geographer Charles Picquet represented the 48 districts of the city of Paris by halftone color
gradient according to the percentage of deaths by cholera per 1,000 inhabitants.
In 1854 John Snow depicted a cholera outbreak in London using points to represent
the locations of some individual cases, possibly the earliest use of a geographic methodology
in epidemiology. His study of the distribution of cholera led to the source of the disease, a
contaminated water pump (the Broad Street Pump, whose handle he disconnected, thus
terminating the outbreak).
While the basic elements of topography and theme existed previously in cartography,
the John Snow map was unique, using cartographic methods not only to depict but also to
analyze clusters of geographically dependent phenomena.
The early 20th century saw the development of photozincography, which allowed
maps to be split into layers, for example one layer for vegetation and another for water. This
was particularly used for printing contours – drawing these was a labour intensive task but
having them on a separate layer meant they could be worked on without the other layers to
confuse the draughtsman. This work was originally drawn on glass plates but later plastic film
was introduced, with the advantages of being lighter, using less storage space and being less
brittle, among others. When all the layers were finished, they were combined into one image
using a large process camera. Once colour printing came in, the layers idea was also used for
creating separate printing plates for each colour. While the use of layers much later became
one of the main typical features of a contemporary GIS, the photographic process just
described is not considered to be a GIS in itself – as the maps were just images with no
database to link them to.
Computer hardware development spurred by nuclear weapon research led to general-
purpose computer "mapping" applications by the early 1960s.
The year 1960 saw the development of the world’s first true operational GIS in
Ottawa, Ontario, Canada by the federal Department of Forestry and Rural Development.
Developed by Dr. Roger Tomlinson, it was called the Canada Geographic Information System
(CGIS) and was used to store, analyze, and manipulate data collected for the Canada Land
Inventory – an effort to determine the land capability for rural Canada by mapping