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calcium can increase bone mass, but the effect is “only” about one
percent (Bushman & Anderson, 2001). Hormone replacement therapy in
women may increase the odds of breast cancer, but across the whole
population, the effect is probably less than one percent. A daily aspirin

may reduce the risk of heart attacks, but again, the effect is less than one
percent (Hemphill, 2003). The medical profession regards these small
effects as clearly important and having a great deal of practical

significance. In fact, there are probably hundreds of reasons for any
aggressive act (e.g., abuse, poverty, history, gang membership, drug use,
etc.). If there are hundreds of reasons, then any single one of them
should not account for much variance. That media violence consistently

appears to account for at least 1 to 10 percent of the effect is actually
surprisingly large!

ASSIGNMENTS
1. Comment on the classification of media given below.
Table 3.2

Classification of Media

Print Media Electronic Media New Age Media
Newspapers Television Mobile Phones
Magazines Radio Computers

Booklets and Internet
Brochures
House magazines,

periodicals or
newsletters
Direct Mailers
Handbills or Flyers

Billboards
Press Releases
Books

2. What are the main effects of the media?
3. Are the effects of media violence severe?

4. Are media effects obvious?
5. What does causality presuppose?
6. Must effects be “big” to be important?

7. Who is affected by the media most of all?
8. Do you agree that children must be limited in watching TV? Why?