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Systematic desensitization, the most widely used technique,
attempts to treat disturbances having identifiable sources, such as a
paralyzing fear of closed spaces. This method usually involves training
the individual to relax in the presence of fear-producing stimuli. The

therapist assumes that the anxiety reaction will be replaced gradually
with the new relaxation response; this is called reciprocal inhibition.
Aversion therapy is used to break disabling bad habits. An aversive

stimulus, such as an electric shock, is given together with the "bad habit,"
such as an alcoholic drink. Repeated pairings result in changing the values
of such stimuli from positive attraction to repulsion.
Biofeedback is most often used in treating disturbed behavior that

has a physical basis. It provides an individual with information about an
ongoing physiological process such as blood pressure or heartbeat rate.
By the use of a mechanical device, indications of moment-to-moment

variations in bodily functioning can be observed and monitored by the
individual. The therapist may provide some reward for desirable
changes, such as a decrease in blood pressure.

Applied behavior analysis is used to develop educational and
treatment techniques that can be tailored to each individual's
requirements while still following a constant format, whether the

patients are retarded or disturbed children in a school or residential
setting, or adults in a psychiatric hospital or rehabilitation center. Five
essential steps characterize this approach: (1) deciding what the
individual can do to ameliorate the problem; (2) devising a program to

weaken undesirable behavior and strengthen desirable substitute
behavior; (3) carrying out the treatment program according to behavioral
principles; (4) keeping careful and objective records; and (5) altering the

program if progress can thereby be improved.

11. ANTHROPOLOGY

Modern Humans

Although the evolutionary appearance of biologically modern
peoples did not dramatically change the basic pattern of adaptation that
had characterized the earlier stages of human history, some innovations

did take place. In addition to the first appearance of the great cave art of
France and Spain, some anthropologists have argued that it was during

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